Skippering, Crew Briefing and Helming

Prerequisites

• RYA Competent Crew or equivalent. You should already be able to steer a course under sail and power, handle sheets and lines, tie the basic knots and act as a willing crew member. The RYA recommends at least 5 days, 100 miles and 4 night hours aboard before the Day Skipper Practical course, and navigation knowledge to Day Skipper Shorebased standard.
• The Day Skipper lessons on passage planning (APEM: appraisal, planning, execution, monitoring), safety equipment and the safety briefing, sail trim and boat handling, engine checks, and night sailing and watchkeeping.
• An understanding that on the practical course you are assessed as skipper: the RYA instructor watches how you prepare the boat, plan, brief, delegate, communicate and make decisions, not only how well you steer. The practical course is continuously assessed; there is no single exam, and the certificate is awarded when the instructor is satisfied that you can skipper a 30 to 45 ft yacht safely by day in familiar waters.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson you will be able to (RYA Day Skipper practical syllabus: preparation for sea, deck work, victualling, passage making, yacht handling under sail and power, emergency situations):

• Describe the skipper's responsibilities and adapt your leadership style to the situation (RYA syllabus: skippering a yacht, crew management).
• Prepare a yacht and her crew for sea: boat, crew, navigation, fuel, weather and victualling checks (RYA syllabus: preparation for sea).
• Give a complete safety briefing covering every item the RYA expects, and a separate, structured passage briefing (RYA syllabus: safety briefing, crew briefing).
• Victual a yacht for a short passage (RYA syllabus: victualling).
• Allocate roles and delegate tasks in line with each crew member's ability.
• Organise watches and manage crew workload, seasickness and fatigue.
• Use closed-loop commands and standard words of command for tacking, gybing, reefing and sail changes.
• Make a sound judgement on the weather for the day, and run a passage so that the plan survives contact with reality (RYA syllabus: passage making, meteorology).
• Steer accurately by tiller and wheel, using reference points and the compass, and recognise and correct weather helm and lee helm (RYA syllabus: helmsmanship).
• Conduct a helm handover, keep a log, and run a no-blame debrief.
• State the skipper's legal duties (SOLAS V, COLREGs, safety equipment, documents).
• Manage seasick, anxious, overconfident and conflicting crew, and make decisions under pressure.

RYA Syllabus Map

What the instructor expects. For the Day Skipper practical you will be given the skipper's role for a day or a passage. The RYA instructor watches whether you prepare the boat properly before leaving the berth, brief the crew, give your orders clearly, delegate rather than do everything yourself, keep the overview, keep the log, and look after the crew's welfare. They want to see a skipper who stays calm, asks for help, and admits and corrects mistakes. Being technically good at steering is not enough. A skipper who leaves harbour with hatches open, no forecast and a crew who have not been told where the lifejackets are has already failed the exercise, however well the boat is sailed afterwards.

The Skipper's Role

The skipper is responsible for the safety of the boat and everyone on board, and for the decisions that keep them safe. That includes complying with the law (COLREGs, SOLAS Chapter V passage planning, safety equipment), but also the human side: making sure the crew know what to do, are fit to do it, and are working together.

A good skipper does not do everything. On a 10 m yacht, a skipper who helms, navigates, trims and cooks ends up exhausted and unable to see the bigger picture. The skill is to delegate the doing and keep the overview: where are we, what's coming next, who is tired, what could go wrong? The RYA's own course notes put it simply: delegate tasks, do not try to do everything yourself. This keeps everyone interested in the passage and lets them learn too.

Leadership styles

Adapt your style to the situation and to the crew:

In an emergency, crew want clear orders, not a debate. In calm conditions, asking for opinions spots problems you may have missed, and gets everyone to buy into the plan. Whichever style you use, the decision and the responsibility remain the skipper's.

Calm competence matters more than volume. Speak deliberately and explain your decisions where there is time. It is better to say "I'm not sure yet. Let's check the chart" than to bluff. Raised voices tell the crew that the skipper has lost control, and they will believe it.

Legal Duties of the Skipper

The skipper of a pleasure vessel has legal duties as well as practical ones. The ones the RYA expects a Day Skipper to know:

• Safe navigation. SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 34 requires passage planning for every voyage, including small yachts, and Regulation 33 requires you to help anyone in distress. Regulation 31 requires you to report dangerous hazards you encounter.
• COLREGs. You must comply with the collision regulations. As skipper you answer for breaches by anyone you put on the helm.
• Safety equipment. The MCA's guidance for pleasure vessels (MGN 599 and the Code of Practice for commercially used craft) sets equipment proportionate to the boat and voyage, and every person on board should be briefed (see the safety equipment lesson). SOLAS V Regulations 29 to 34 apply to all vessels, including yachts. Lifejackets must be worn when the skipper decides they are needed; most skippers require them in the dinghy, at night, in fog, in rough weather and for non-swimmers and children at all times.
• Pollution and wildlife. You must not discharge oil or garbage, and you must follow local byelaws on discharge of sewage and on disturbing protected species.
• Insurance, documents and registration. Carry insurance papers, registration (Part 1 or Small Ships Register), the Ship Radio Licence and the operator's certificate (SRC) for the VHF. Check that you comply with the country's customs and immigration requirements when crossing borders.
• Harbour byelaws. Local byelaws cover speed limits, small craft channels and areas where anchoring is prohibited. The skipper is expected to know them for the harbours used.
• Responsibility for the crew. You are responsible for safe operation of the vessel. A paying or guest crew will expect you to be in charge, and an insurer or court will look at what a competent skipper would have done.

You do not become legally responsible for a crew member's recklessness, but you can be held to account for not briefing them, not stopping unsafe practices, or sailing in conditions beyond the boat or crew.

Preparation for Sea

The RYA Day Skipper practical course notes open with a single page headed "Preparation for sea", and every instructor checks it. Prepare the yacht for sea before leaving harbour, brief the crew about the passage and consider the crew's strengths. Do it in a fixed order, so nothing is forgotten when you are in a hurry.

Crew

• Give a safety brief (see below) to everyone, every trip, even if some have sailed with you before.
• Brief the crew about the passage (see the passage briefing below).
• Ask privately whether anyone has a medical condition you should know about: asthma, diabetes, epilepsy, heart conditions, pregnancy, allergies, medication. Note where their medication is kept.
• Check that lifejackets and harnesses are adjusted correctly for the wearer. A lifejacket that is too loose rides up over the face in the water; one without a crotch strap can be swum out of. Check the gas cylinder is screwed in, the firing head is in date and the light and whistle are present.
• Advise crew who are prone to seasickness to take their tablets early. Most medication needs to be taken at least an hour before departure, and some brands the night before.

Navigation

• Prepare a passage plan and a pilotage plan for leaving, for arriving and for any port of refuge (see the passage planning and pilotage lessons).
• Check that the charts are up to date and give adequate coverage, including a large-scale chart of each harbour. Check the almanac and pilot book for tidal gates, locks, bridges and VHF channels.
• Write up tide times and heights for the day, and the times of any tidal gates, on the log page before you leave.

Fuel

• Check there is sufficient fuel for the whole passage under power, plus a reserve. Use the rule of thirds: a third out, a third back, a third spare. A typical 20 to 40 hp yacht diesel burns 1 to 3 litres an hour at cruising revs; check the figure for your boat.
• Keep the tank topped up. A full tank avoids condensation and water in the fuel, and a low level in rough water stirs up sediment that blocks the fuel filters.

Weather

• Obtain the latest forecast from at least two sources (see the weather forecasting lesson), and write the key points in the log.
• Check the local conditions. Harbours are usually sheltered, so look for white horses outside, or smoke from distant chimneys, as an indication of the true wind.
• Decide the sail plan before you leave. Consider how much sail is required; a reef can be tied in before the sail is hoisted, and it is always easier to shake a reef out than to put one in at sea.

Victualling

• Ensure there is enough food and drink for the passage, plus a margin in case you are delayed or diverted.
• Prepare meals for a passage in advance, while the boat is alongside.
• Stow snacks and drinks where they can be reached from the cockpit (see Victualling below).

The boat

• Carry out the daily engine checks (see the engine lesson), and check the gas is off at the bottle unless in use.
• Remove sail covers, prepare sheets and furling lines, and check the halyards are clear. Tie in a reef now if the forecast suggests it.
• Close all hatches and portlights, and shut seacocks that are not needed (heads inlet and outlet, galley sink) if you are expecting rough water.
• Stow everything below so that nothing can fly across the cabin. Secure the companionway washboards where they can be found.
• Check the log, depth sounder, GPS and VHF are switched on and working, and that the VHF shows your position.
• Plan how to leave the berth: which lines will be slipped first, where the fenders go, and what the wind and stream will do to the boat (see the boat handling lesson). Brief the crew on this before the engine is started.

Pre-departure checklist

The Safety Briefing

The safety briefing is given to every crew member before leaving harbour, and the RYA lists what it must contain. Cover where each item of safety equipment is kept, how it works and when to use it. Walk the crew round the boat rather than lecturing them in the cockpit: people remember where the fire extinguisher is if they have seen it. The full detail of the equipment is in the safety equipment lesson; this is the briefing itself.

• Flares. Where they are stowed. The types carried (red handheld, orange smoke, red parachute rockets) and what each is for. How and when to use them. Also tell the crew to take a bearing if a flare is seen from another vessel.
• Man overboard. What to do in the event of a MOB: shout, point, throw the horseshoe and danbuoy, press the MOB button on the GPS. Where the lifebuoys, danbuoy and lights are, and a check that the MOB equipment works and releases quickly. The procedure for recovery from the water (see the MOB lesson).
• Gas and cooker. How to use the cooker. The location of the bottle and the shut-off valves. What to do in the event of a leak: turn off at the bottle, no naked flames, no electrical switches, ventilate and pump the bilge by hand.
• Fire. The location of the extinguishers and the fire blanket, and how to use them. Where the engine compartment extinguisher or port is.
• Spares and tools. Where to find extra fuel, spares and the toolkit.
• Deck equipment. How the deck equipment works: anchor and windlass, rope clutches, winches (and the danger of fingers near a loaded winch). How to start and stop the engine, including the stop control, which on many boats is a pull cable rather than the key.
• Radio. VHF DSC operation: how to switch on, select Channel 16, press the red distress button and send a Mayday by voice. Show the Mayday card by the set.
• Personal safety equipment. The use, operation and location of lifejackets and harnesses. Jackstays and other clip-on points, and the rules for when to clip on. Lifejacket rules for today.
• Liferaft. How and when to launch it, and where the grab bag is kept. "Only if there is no hope of saving the boat; you step up into a liferaft."
• Accident and injury. Identify the danger areas: the boom, winches, clutches, open hatches and the companionway. Work on the windward deck when the boat is heeled, so that a slip takes you into the boat, not over the lee rail. The location of the first aid kit.
• Heads and seacocks. How to use the heads and which seacocks must be open or closed; blocked heads are the commonest avoidable breakdown.

A good safety briefing takes 15 to 20 minutes. Finish with questions: "Where is the fire blanket? What's the first thing you do if someone goes over the side?"

The Pre-Departure Passage Briefing

Every passage also starts with a passage briefing, alongside, before lines are slipped. It is separate from (but can follow straight after) the safety briefing.

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A good structure, taking 10 to 15 minutes:

1. Opening. Set the tone: welcome, safety first, and that questions are welcome at any time.
2. Voyage. Destination, route, distance and expected time, tidal gates, weather forecast, plans B and C (ports of refuge), expected conditions ("it'll be lumpy round the headland at about 1400").
3. Roles. Who does what: helm rota, navigator, watch leaders, who handles lines leaving and arriving, cook and galley roster.
4. Safety. Lifejacket and harness rules for today, MOB actions, key equipment locations (or confirm the full safety briefing has been done).
5. Communication. How and when to call the skipper ("wake me if a ship's bearing doesn't change, if the wind goes above 20 knots, or if you're unsure about anything"), the words of command you will use, hand signals for noise or distance (for example, bow to helm when anchoring).
6. Comfort. Seasickness (take tablets early, stay on deck, look at the horizon, keep warm and drink water), sun protection, warm clothing, food and drink.
7. Questions. Invite them, then ask a few questions to check understanding.

Use simple terms, and define them for novices: port and starboard, bear away and head up, ease and trim, tack and gybe. Write the essentials on a whiteboard or in the log: ETA, next waypoint, helm rota.

Update the crew whenever the plan changes. A diversion that only the skipper knows about invites confusion.

Victualling

The Day Skipper syllabus expects you to know how to victual a yacht for a short passage. The principles:

• Water. Allow at least 2 litres per person per day for drinking in temperate weather, more in heat or if people are seasick, plus water for cooking and washing. Fill the tanks before leaving and carry some bottled water as a reserve in case the tank water is contaminated or the pump fails.
• Hot drinks. Fill vacuum flasks with hot water or soup before leaving. Hot drinks are the cheapest morale and warmth you can buy, and a flask means nobody has to light the cooker in a seaway.
• Meals. Prepare the main meal in advance (a stew or pasta sauce in a sealed container that only needs heating), and plan food that can be eaten with one hand from a mug or bowl. Cold weather and night passages need more calories than you expect.
• Snacks. Biscuits, cereal bars, fruit, chocolate and sandwiches stowed in a cockpit bag so that the watch can eat without going below. Plain dry food (crackers, ginger biscuits) suits queasy stomachs.
• Quantities. Plan for the passage time plus at least 50 per cent, and for a diversion to a port with no shops on a Sunday. Water and some food for two extra days is a sensible minimum on any coastal passage.
• Stowage. Heavy items low and central, fragile items wedged, nothing loose on the galley worktop at sea. Gas off at the bottle when the cooker is not in use.
• Cooking at sea. Use the gimballed cooker and its fiddles, the crash bar, and the pan clamps. The cook should wear oilskin trousers in a seaway and never cook in shorts.
• Dietary needs. Ask about allergies and vegetarian or religious requirements when you ask about medical conditions.

Roles and Delegation

Matching roles to people

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At the start of a trip, find out what each person can do: ask them, then watch them. Typical allocation:

Give novices simple, clearly defined jobs at first (fenders, lookout, a sheet on a tack) and build up from there. Rotate jobs so everyone learns, and so no one gets stuck on the foredeck all day or in the galley.

Briefing a task: objective, method, constraints, reporting, authority

When you delegate a task, make five things clear:

1. Objective: what needs doing. "Get the first reef in the mainsail."
2. Method: how, at least for a novice. "Head up a bit, ease the mainsheet, drop the halyard to the mark, hook on the tack, then winch in the reefing line."
3. Constraints: safety and limits. "Clip on before going to the mast. Keep the boom amidships."
4. Reporting: when to come back to you. "Tell me when it's done, or straight away if anything jams."
5. Authority: what they can decide themselves. "If the wind drops, you can shake it out without asking."

Check understanding with a teach-back: "Run me through it." Supervise until you are confident, then step back. Accept other methods that achieve the same result safely. Correct privately and praise publicly.

Communication on Deck

Closed-loop commands

Misunderstood orders cause many accidents. In closed-loop communication the receiver repeats the order back, so the sender knows it was heard and understood correctly:

• Skipper: "Ease the mainsheet two turns."
• Crew: "Easing the mainsheet two turns," while doing it.

Coordinating manoeuvres

Every manoeuvre has three stages: warn, prepare and confirm, execute.

Tacking:

1. Warn: "We'll tack in about a minute."
2. Prepare: "Ready about." The crew check the area is clear, take the new sheet round the winch with a winch handle ready, and get ready to release the old one.
3. Confirm: the crew reply "Ready."
4. Execute: "Lee-oh!" or "Helm's a-lee." The helm puts the tiller to leeward (or the wheel to windward), the old sheet is released as the jib backs, and the new sheet is hauled in.

Gybing (more dangerous, because the boom crosses fast):

1. Warn: "Gybing in a minute. Heads down."
2. Prepare: "Stand by to gybe." Mainsheet hauled in to bring the boom near the centreline. Crew ready on the jib sheets.
3. Confirm: "Ready."
4. Execute: "Gybe-oh!" The helm bears away gently, the boom crosses under control, the mainsheet is eased out on the new side.

Reefing (the RYA practical notes give the sequence): head the boat close to but not straight into the wind; ease the kicking strap and mainsheet; take up the topping lift to take the weight of the boom; ease the halyard, pull the luff down and hook the cringle on the ram's horn; winch the halyard tight; winch in the reefing pennant, watching for jams while the sail flaps; ease the topping lift and trim the mainsheet and kicker; tidy the reefing lines and put a sail tie through the clew. The skipper's words of command follow the same warn, prepare, confirm, execute pattern, and everyone leaving the cockpit clips on. Heaving-to before reefing steadies the boat so that the crew finish the job faster and more safely.

Keep commands short, standard and the same every time. For anchoring and berthing, agree hand signals between bow and helm, since voices do not carry against the wind or engine noise: for example, an arm pointing in the direction the chain leads, a raised fist for "hold", a circling hand for "keep paying out", and a flat hand drawn across the throat for "stop the engine".

Managing People: Common Situations

The seasick crew member. Seasickness is not a character flaw. Prevention: tablets or patches taken early, a light meal, no alcohol, warm clothing, a good night's sleep. On passage: keep them on deck in fresh air, give them a job (steering is the best cure), look at the horizon, sip water and nibble dry biscuits. Never send them below to lie down in a closed cabin unless they are too ill to stay on deck, and never leave them alone near the guardrails without a lifejacket and clipped on. If someone has been vomiting for hours and cannot keep fluids down, they risk dehydration: plan a shorter passage or a port of refuge.

The frightened or anxious novice. Fear makes people freeze or panic. Give clear, short instructions, explain what is happening ("the boat is meant to heel like this"), put them where they feel safe (in the cockpit, clipped on) and give them a simple role. Stay calm yourself. Do not laugh at them.

The overconfident crew member. An experienced hand who ignores the briefing is a risk to the whole boat. Address it privately and early: "I need everyone clipped on at night, including you." If they will not comply, remind them that you are responsible for everyone's safety and that the rule is not negotiable.

Conflict between crew. On a small boat tiredness turns small irritations into rows. Separate the people, listen to both, and decide quickly and fairly. A calm, firm skipper who treats everyone alike ends most disputes. Do not take sides.

The crew member who knows more than you. Ask them for advice, but remember the decision is yours. "I'd like your view on the tide: what would you do?" followed by "Thanks. We'll do this" is better than ignoring or surrendering command.

Decision making under pressure. When things go wrong, use a short loop: stop, assess, decide, act, review. Say the plan aloud so the crew know what to expect. A bad decision made calmly and corrected is better than an unmade decision.

Welfare checklist for every watch change: Is everyone warm and dry? Has everyone eaten and had a hot drink in the last three hours? Does anyone look unwell or very tired? Is any gear damaged? Is anyone clearly anxious?

Watches and Workload

Watch systems

On longer passages the crew must rest in turns, so that the boat is sailed properly around the clock and nobody becomes exhausted. The night sailing lesson covers night-specific watchkeeping. The systems below work day and night.

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• 4 on, 4 off with two watches is common. Splitting the 1600 to 2000 watch into two dog watches of 2 hours each gives an odd number of watches in 24 hours, so people don't stand the same unpleasant 0000 to 0400 watch every night.
• 3 on, 6 off with three watches gives more rest, but needs more crew.
• For coastal day passages, a simple helm rota (for example, an hour each on the helm in turn) prevents one person steering all day while others are bored and cold.

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In the 4-crew example above, the skipper and Anna stand one watch and Ben and Clara the other. Within each pair, one helms and keeps lookout while the other trims and navigates, swapping halfway through. Putting the skipper in a watch is fine with this small a crew, as long as the other pair know they must call the skipper in their watch whenever in doubt. Many skippers prefer to stay out of the rota on short passages and be available all the time, but on anything longer that leads to an exhausted skipper.

Managing workload and fatigue

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Watch for the signs of an overloaded or tired crew: mistakes, irritability, silence, seasickness, loss of interest. The skipper should:

• rotate the helm before people tire (an hour or so in demanding conditions)
• keep the crew warm, fed and watered
• not ask the lookout to also cook or navigate
• reduce workload by reefing early, motoring if appropriate, or shortening the passage
• look after themselves too. A fatigued skipper makes bad decisions.

Planning the Day: Judging the Weather

The RYA course notes say that good skippering is all about making a good judgement on the weather and being considerate to your crew. The instructor will give you a forecast and expect you to build the day around it. Here is the RYA's own illustration of the point, with two boats that start from the same information.

The forecast. "Here is the inshore forecast issued at 0700 UT and valid until 0700 tomorrow. Winds south Force 3, backing south-east for a time, then veering south-west or west and increasing Force 5 to 6, perhaps 7 by dusk. Weather fair, rain later."

Both skippers read it at 0730 and both decide to go for the day, but they make different decisions on timing.

• 0900. It is a lovely morning and both boats leave harbour on the last of the ebb. They enjoy a short beat to a sheltered anchorage a few miles down the coast.
• 1200. A pleasant lunch at anchor. One skipper, remembering the forecast, keeps a careful eye on the sky and the wind direction.
• 1500. The wind backs into the south-east. The watchful skipper recognises the sign of an approaching front and decides that now is a good time to go home. The other boat stays for a swim.
• 1700. The wind veers and increases as forecast. The first boat takes the last of the flood back into harbour with the wind free and a flat sea. The second skipper now faces a problem: the increasing wind makes weighing anchor and hoisting sail unnecessarily difficult in what has become an exposed anchorage, and the crew face a hard beat home in deteriorating weather, against the ebb and with the wind against tide kicking up a steep sea.

The lessons: a forecast of deterioration later in the day means planning to be home, or in shelter, before it arrives; an anchorage that is sheltered in the morning wind may be a lee shore by the afternoon; and the signs of change (a backing wind, falling barometer, thickening high cloud) should trigger the decision you already made in the morning. Timing the tide so that you come home with it, rather than against it, turns a hard day into an easy one.

Running the Passage

The RYA practical notes give a short list for the day of the passage, and it is a good summary of what the instructor is watching for:

• Obtain the latest forecast before you leave. Be prepared to change your plans and stay in port. Instructors respect a skipper who decides not to go.
• If the forecast is good, leave promptly. Tidal gates do not wait, and a late start erodes every margin you built into the plan.
• Hoist sails in the shelter of the land, head to wind, before you reach the open sea and the motion makes foredeck work hard.
• Delegate tasks; do not try to do everything yourself.
• Log your position every hour, with the time, log reading, course steered, wind, barometer and anything of note. A log entry is also a dead reckoning position if the electronics fail. Put the fix on the chart as well.
• Watch for cross tides at the harbour entrance; a compass course that looked right on the chart can set you onto a sandbank. Use a transit of the next buoy with the land behind it to keep a good course over the ground.
• Consult the pilot book for the harbour's VHF channel and call the harbour master before entering if required.
• Keep the crew informed: "Halfway, ETA now 1600, next mark is the red can off the point."
• Monitor the plan against reality (the M in APEM): is the speed as planned, is the tide doing what the atlas said, is the weather following the forecast? If not, decide early whether to continue, divert or turn back.

The skipper's log

A log is both a legal record and your most useful navigation tool. A simple hourly entry contains: time, log reading, course steered (compass), position (fix or EP, with the method), wind direction and force, barometer, sail set and engine hours, and remarks (vessels seen, reefs taken, VHF calls, anything the crew reported). The log also records the forecast, the safety brief given, the ETD and ETA, and who was on the helm. On the practical course the instructor will expect a log kept throughout the passage, not written up from memory in harbour.

Helming

Tiller and wheel

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• Tiller: push the tiller the opposite way to the way you want the bow to go. Tiller to port turns the boat to starboard. The tiller gives direct feel through the rudder, so you notice weather helm immediately.
• Wheel: turn it the same way as you want to go, as in a car. It has more mechanical advantage and less feel. Note the centring mark (often a turk's head on the top spoke), so you know when the rudder is amidships.
• Under power, especially going astern, the boat behaves differently: prop walk, little steerage at low speed, the stern swings first. That is covered in the boat handling lesson.

Steering by reference points

Beginners stare at the compass and chase the needle. The result is a zig-zag course, over-steering and seasickness. Instead:

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1. Bring the boat onto the course on the compass.
2. Look ahead and pick a reference point on that heading: a distant headland, a cloud, a star at night, or the angle of the waves.
3. Steer toward that point, glancing at the compass every so often to check. Pick a new reference when it moves (clouds drift, stars rise).
4. Use small, smooth tiller or wheel movements and anticipate. In waves, let the bow ride up a sea and bear away slightly down the back, keeping the average course right.

A good target is to hold the heading to within about 5 degrees in moderate conditions and 10 degrees in a big sea. When steering to the wind (close-hauled), watch the jib luff telltales and the feel of the boat rather than the compass, and tell the navigator the average heading you are actually making.

Steering under sail: numbers and technique

• Close-hauled: the boat points about 40 to 45 degrees off the true wind. Steer by the telltales on the jib and the feel of the helm: if the windward telltales lift, you are too close to the wind and should bear away; if the leeward ones stall and droop, you are too far off and should head up. A well-steered course varies by only a few degrees. "Feathering" (a gentle luff in the gusts) reduces heel and weather helm.
• Reaching: the easiest point of sail. Check the sails still look right: ease sheets until they just lift at the luff, then trim in slightly.
• Running: steering is demanding because the boat rolls and can gybe accidentally. Keep the wind on the quarter rather than dead astern and avoid sailing by the lee, where the wind is on the same side as the boom and an accidental gybe is likely. Rig a preventer in a seaway.
• Heaving to: tack without releasing the jib, lash the tiller to leeward. The boat settles at about 50 to 60 degrees to the wind and drifts slowly. A useful skipper's tool for a rest, a meal, a reef or to wait for the tide.

Steering under power

• Boats steer by the flow of water over the rudder, not by the prop, so you need speed through the water. At very low speeds the rudder is ineffective and prop walk dominates. See the boat handling lesson.
• Keep the throttle smooth and the course steady. Keep the lookout, because the noise of the engine blocks sounds of other vessels.
• Use the same reference-point technique as under sail, with a headland or leading mark.

Skipper's own helming checks

Before handing over the helm check that: the autopilot is off or a known setting; the course is written on the helm card; the traffic situation is understood; the helm has been told when to call you. When taking over from someone tired, ask them to repeat the course and sail trim to check they are alert.

Weather helm and lee helm

A balanced boat needs only a little rudder to hold a straight course.

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• Weather helm means the boat tries to turn into the wind, and you must hold the tiller to windward (the wheel turned to leeward) to keep it straight. A slight weather helm (2 to 3 degrees of rudder) is desirable: it gives feel, and if the helm is let go the boat rounds up into the wind and slows down safely.
• Excessive weather helm slows the boat (the rudder acts as a brake), tires the helm and can cause a broach. Causes: too much mainsail, heeling too far, mainsail sheeted too hard. Cures: reef the main, ease the mainsheet or drop the traveller to leeward, flatten the main, reduce heel. The RYA notes list the symptoms of too much sail on a windy day as weather helm, excessive heel, a slower yacht and broaching in gusts; boats are designed to sail upright or heeled up to about 20 degrees, and beyond that moving about becomes difficult, steering and vision deteriorate and speed drops.
• Lee helm means the boat tries to turn away from the wind. It is dangerous because a released helm leads to bearing away and possibly a crash gybe. Causes: too much headsail relative to main, often in light winds. Cure: more mainsail or less headsail.

The helm handover

The helm must never be left unattended, even for a moment.

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1. The incoming helm comes alongside and gets a feel for the conditions.
2. The outgoing helm briefs: course or wind angle being steered, any traffic, sail trim, anything the skipper has asked for. "Course 270, wind 15 knots, ship crossing ahead to starboard, bearing steady at the moment."
3. "You have the helm."
4. The incoming helm takes hold, then confirms: "I have the helm. Course 270."
5. Only then does the outgoing helm let go.

The same "I have" and "you have" language works for handing over the watch, the navigation, or control of a manoeuvre.

Autopilots

An autopilot is a useful extra crew member on long legs, but it doesn't keep a lookout. Watch the track (COG on the plotter against the planned track), the battery voltage, and the traffic. Everyone on watch must know how to disengage it instantly, and must keep up their hand-steering skills.

The Debrief

After a passage, a manoeuvre or an incident, a short debrief turns experience into learning.

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1. What happened? Agree the facts. Everyone contributes, including the most junior crew.
2. Why did it happen? Look for causes: environment, equipment, communication, decisions. Concentrate on the system, not on blame.
3. What next? Agree what to do differently, and who does it.

Keep it no-blame. If people fear being blamed, they hide mistakes and nobody learns. The skipper should go first, with something they would do differently. Praise good work specifically: "The way you kept pointing at the dan buoy was perfect."

Worked Example

Scenario. You are skipper of a 10 m sloop for a 30 nm coastal passage with four crew: Anna (experienced, Day Skipper theory), Ben (Competent Crew), and Clara and Dev (complete novices). Forecast: west Force 4, increasing 5 to 6 by late afternoon. HW at the destination is 1540, and the last of the flood will carry you in. You plan to leave at 0800 to arrive by 1500.

Preparation (0700): you do the engine checks with Ben watching, so that he can do them tomorrow. Dev fills the water tanks and two flasks. Anna checks the charts cover the passage and writes up the tides. You top up the diesel: 5 hours' motoring at 2 litres an hour is 10 litres, so with the tank showing three-quarters of 60 litres you have plenty. You note the 0700 forecast in the log and look at the flags on the marina breakwater: the wind is already a fresh Force 4 outside. You decide to leave with the first reef already tied in and the working jib rather than the genoa. Hatches are closed and the heads seacocks shut.

Briefing (0730): after the safety briefing, you explain the route, the expected wind increase and the plan to shake the reef out if the wind is lighter than expected once clear of the headland. Roles: Anna as navigator and second-in-command, Ben as foredeck lead with Dev, Clara on the helm first under your coaching. A helm rota of 45 minutes each is written up on the whiteboard, with Anna logging the position every hour. You agree the call-the-skipper rule: "any ship whose bearing isn't changing, any wind over 20 knots apparent, any doubt."

Leaving the berth (0800): you explain the plan for leaving: wind is blowing you onto the pontoon, so you will use a bow spring to swing the stern out, then reverse clear. Ben rigs the spring as a slip line and a fender at the bow. The crew repeat their jobs back before you engage gear.

Underway (1030): Clara is zig-zagging, chasing the compass. You show her a cloud on the bow and ask her to steer toward it, checking the compass every 30 seconds. Within 10 minutes her course is much steadier. Anna's 1000 log entry shows 5.4 knots, course 265 compass, wind W4, barometer 1012 and steady.

1130: The wind reaches 18 knots and the boat is heeling hard and griping up to windward even with one reef. Clara is struggling to hold the tiller. Instead of reefing yourself, you delegate to Ben: "Ben, I'd like the second reef in. Dev's helping you. Clip on before you leave the cockpit. Anna will take the helm and head up for you. Tell me when it's done." Ben repeats the plan back. The reef goes in smoothly. The weather helm reduces and the boat speeds up.

1430: Approaching the harbour, you call the harbour office on the channel given in the almanac and are allocated a berth. The pilotage plan has a transit for the entrance, and Anna confirms the cross-tide is setting you north, so Clara steers for the transit rather than the compass course.

1500, after berthing: you debrief with tea. What happened: a good passage, a smooth reef, one sloppy tack where the jib sheet jammed. Why: the sheet hadn't been flaked and had a kink. Next time: Dev will flake the sheets before each tack. You ask Clara what she found hardest. She says the steering, so you put her on the helm first tomorrow.

Common Mistakes

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• Leaving harbour unprepared: no forecast, hatches open, sail covers still on, no plan for leaving the berth, no tide times written up.
• The skipper does everything, loses the overview and gets exhausted.
• No briefing, or one that is too long and full of jargon that novices don't understand. A safety briefing that misses the gas, the fire extinguishers or the liferaft.
• Orders without confirmation. "Ease the sheet" heard as "release the sheet".
• Tasks beyond the crew's ability, or the same person always doing the hard jobs.
• Compass fixation and over-steering.
• Ignoring weather helm instead of reefing. Ignoring lee helm, which risks a gybe.
• Leaving the helm unattended during a changeover.
• Trusting the autopilot without watching the track and the traffic.
• No log entries until the end of the day, so there is no DR position when the plotter fails.
• Ignoring the afternoon in the forecast because the morning is pleasant.
• Public criticism and blame-heavy debriefs.
• Not noticing tired, cold, hungry or seasick crew until they are no longer able to help.

Summary

• The skipper is responsible for safety and decisions. Delegate the doing, keep the overview.
• Prepare for sea in a fixed order: crew, navigation, fuel, weather, victualling, the boat. Check the true wind outside the harbour and reef before hoisting if in doubt.
• Give the full RYA safety briefing (flares, MOB, gas, fire, spares, deck gear, engine, radio, personal safety gear, liferaft and grab bag, injury risks, first aid) and a separate structured passage briefing. Update it when the plan changes.
• Victual for the passage plus a generous margin: water, flasks, prepared meals, one-handed snacks within reach of the cockpit.
• Use directive leadership in emergencies, consultative when planning, and supportive when people are tired or scared.
• Delegate with objective, method, constraints, reporting and authority. Check by teach-back.
• Use closed-loop commands and a warn, prepare, confirm, execute pattern for every manoeuvre.
• Judge the weather for the whole day, not just the morning, and plan to be in shelter before a forecast deterioration.
• Get the latest forecast, leave promptly, hoist in shelter, delegate, log hourly and watch cross tides at entrances.
• Tiller goes opposite, wheel goes same way. Steer by distant references, not the compass. Slight weather helm is good. Excessive weather helm means reef. Lee helm is dangerous.
• Hand over the helm with "You have the helm" and "I have the helm". Debrief without blame.

Check Your Understanding

1. Give an example of when directive leadership is appropriate, and an example of when consultative leadership is better.

Answer: Directive: an emergency such as a man overboard or fire, or a time-critical manoeuvre with novices, when clear orders are needed immediately. Consultative: deciding with experienced crew whether to sail tomorrow given a worsening forecast, when there is time to discuss and the crew's views improve the decision.

1. List the six areas of preparation for sea in the RYA course notes, with one check for each.

Answer: Crew (safety brief, passage brief, medical conditions, lifejackets and harnesses fitted, seasickness tablets early); navigation (passage and pilotage plans, charts up to date); fuel (enough for the passage plus reserve, tank kept full); weather (latest forecast, check true conditions outside the harbour); victualling (enough food and drink, meals prepared, snacks accessible); and the boat (engine checks, sail covers off, reef tied in if needed, hatches closed, seacocks shut if necessary, plan for leaving the berth).

1. What items must a safety briefing cover?

Answer: Flares (location, types, how and when to use, take a bearing if one is seen); man overboard (actions, lifebuoys, danbuoy, lights, recovery method); gas and cooker (use, bottle and shut-off, leak actions); fire (extinguishers and blanket, how to use); spares, fuel and tools; deck equipment (anchor, clutches, winches) and starting and stopping the engine; radio (VHF DSC and how to send a Mayday); personal safety equipment (lifejackets, harnesses, jackstays and clip-on points); liferaft (how and when to launch, grab bag location); and accident and injury (danger areas such as the boom, winches and hatches, working on the windward deck, first aid kit).

1. What are the main sections of a pre-departure passage briefing?

Answer: Opening (tone and safety priority), voyage (destination, route, timing, weather, tides, alternatives), roles (who does what, rotas), safety (lifejacket and harness rules, MOB, equipment), communication (when and how to call the skipper, commands, signals), comfort (seasickness, clothing, food and drink), and questions, with understanding checked.

1. What five things should you make clear when delegating a task?

Answer: Objective (what), method (how), constraints (safety and limits), reporting (when to report back or escalate) and authority (what they can decide themselves).

1. What is closed-loop communication? Give an example.

Answer: The receiver repeats the order back while carrying it out, so the sender knows it was heard correctly. Skipper: "Ease the mainsheet two turns." Crew: "Easing the mainsheet two turns."

1. The inshore forecast at 0700 gives south Force 3, backing south-east for a time, then veering south-west and increasing to Force 5 to 6, perhaps 7 by dusk. You want a day sail to an anchorage open to the south-west. How do you plan the day?

Answer: Go in the morning with the fair tide while the wind is light, but plan to leave the anchorage early in the afternoon so that you are home before the front arrives, ideally with a fair tide for the return. Treat the wind backing into the south-east as the signal to go. The anchorage will become a lee shore when the wind veers south-west, and weighing anchor and beating home against wind and tide in a Force 6 is a poor end to the day.

1. Why are dog watches used?

Answer: Splitting the 1600 to 2000 watch into two 2-hour watches gives an odd number of watches in 24 hours, so the schedule shifts each day and the same people don't always stand the same watches (such as 0000 to 0400).

1. A novice on the helm is steering a zig-zag course while staring at the compass. How do you help them?

Answer: Get them onto course, then have them pick a distant reference point (a headland, cloud or star) on that heading and steer toward it, glancing at the compass occasionally. Encourage small, smooth movements and anticipating the waves, steering for the average course.

1. The boat has heavy weather helm and is rounding up in the gusts. What causes this and how do you fix it?

Answer: Usually too much mainsail and too much heel for the wind strength. Reef the main, ease the mainsheet or drop the traveller to leeward, flatten the sail, and reduce heel. A slight weather helm of 2 to 3 degrees is good. Heavy weather helm is slow and can cause a broach.

1. Why is lee helm dangerous?

Answer: The boat tends to turn away from the wind, so if the helm is released it bears away instead of rounding up safely. This can lead to an accidental, uncontrolled gybe. Correct it by increasing mainsail or reducing headsail.

1. Describe a correct helm handover.

Answer: The incoming helm gets a feel for the conditions. The outgoing helm briefs the course, traffic, trim and any orders, then says "You have the helm." The incoming helm takes hold and confirms "I have the helm, course 270." Only then does the outgoing helm let go. The helm is never left unattended.

1. What should an hourly log entry contain, and why does the RYA insist on it?

Answer: Time, log reading, course steered, position (fix or EP and the method), wind, barometer, sail and engine state, and remarks. It is the legal record of the passage and gives a dead reckoning starting point if the electronics fail; a log written up afterwards from memory is neither.

1. A novice crew member is vomiting from seasickness 3 hours into a 6-hour passage. What do you do?

Answer: Keep them in fresh air, give them a simple job (steering is best), keep them warm, clipped on and in a lifejacket, give small sips of water, and reduce the workload. Do not send them below alone to lie down. If they cannot keep fluids down, consider a shorter passage or a port of refuge.

1. State the law the skipper must follow regarding passage planning and assisting in distress.

Answer: SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 34 requires a passage plan for every voyage, and Regulation 33 requires a master to help persons in distress at sea, subject to the safety of their own vessel and crew.