Bridge Resource Management and Teamwork

Prerequisites

You should have read the lesson on keeping a navigational watch, which covers the OOW's duties, the lookout, handovers and calling the master. You should know the basics of radar, ARPA and ECDIS. Bridge Resource Management (BRM) is also part of the HELM (Operational) course required for the OOW (Unlimited) CoC, so this lesson is good preparation for it.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

Explain what Bridge Resource Management is and why the industry adopted it.
Describe situational awareness and the shared mental model, and how a bridge team builds them.
Use closed-loop communication for helm and engine orders and reports.
Challenge a senior officer or pilot effectively using graded assertiveness, and respond properly when challenged.
Recognise an error chain and the points where a team can break it.
Conduct a master-pilot information exchange and monitor a pilot.
Use bridge checklists from the ICS Bridge Procedures Guide sensibly.
Learn from accidents where BRM failed.

What BRM Is

Bridge Resource Management is the effective use of all the resources available to the bridge team, people, equipment and information, to achieve a safe passage. It grew from Crew Resource Management in aviation, after investigators found that most accidents in both industries were not caused by a lack of skill but by teams that failed to share what they knew.

STCW includes it in the competence "use of leadership and teamworking skills" and "bridge resource management" in Table A-II/1, and the UK teaches it through HELM and NAEST. The ICS Bridge Procedures Guide makes it the basis of its bridge organisation.

The resources are:

People: master, OOW, lookout, helmsman, pilot, engineers, VTS operators, other ships, the company ashore.
Equipment: radars, ECDIS, GNSS, gyro and magnetic compasses, echo sounder, AIS, VHF, steering and engines.
Information: the passage plan, charts and publications, standing and night orders, weather, tidal data, pilot information, local knowledge.

BRM is not "management by committee". The master is in command, and the OOW is in charge of the watch. BRM makes sure the person in charge has every bit of information the team holds, and that nobody keeps quiet when they see something wrong.

Situational Awareness and the Shared Mental Model

Situational awareness is knowing what is going on around you and what is likely to happen next. It is often described in three levels:

Perception: noticing the elements. "There is a ship on the starboard bow."
Comprehension: understanding what they mean. "Its bearing is steady; we are on a collision course and we are the give-way vessel."
Projection: predicting the future. "In 12 minutes we will be at the wheel-over point, and that ship will be close ahead, so we must act now."

Most bridge accidents involve a loss of situational awareness at one of these levels: a target never noticed, a hazard noticed but not understood, or a situation understood but not projected forward.

A shared mental model is when everyone on the bridge has the same picture: where we are, where we are going, what the plan is, what the dangers are, and who does what. It is built by:

The passage plan, appraised, planned and briefed before departure (IMO Resolution A.893(21) on voyage planning: appraise, plan, execute, monitor).
Briefings before critical phases: departure, arrival, pilotage, TSS crossing, anchoring, restricted visibility.
Thinking aloud: the OOW says what they see and intend: "I'm going to come round to 270 to give that crossing vessel room."
Updates when the plan changes.

A bridge where only one person knows the plan is a one-person bridge, however many people are standing on it.

Closed-Loop Communication

On the bridge, a misheard order can put the ship aground within seconds. Every order that matters is spoken in a closed loop, as shown below.

The steps:

Order: the sender gives a clear, standard order. "Starboard ten."
Read-back: the receiver repeats it exactly. "Starboard ten."
Confirm: the sender checks the read-back and confirms. "Correct." If the read-back is wrong, the sender corrects it at once.
Report: the receiver reports when it is done. "Wheel's starboard ten." The OOW checks the rudder angle indicator and the rate of turn.

The same pattern applies to engine orders ("Half ahead." "Half ahead." ... "Engine's half ahead."), to course orders ("Steer 270." "Steer 270." ... "Steady on 270."), and to communication with the engine room, mooring stations and VTS.

Standard phrases

Use the IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) and the ship's standard wheel orders. Never mix "left" and "port"; never give a number that could be a course or a rudder angle without saying which. In multinational crews, standard phrases are what keeps meaning intact across languages.

Why it matters

At Giglio in January 2012, the cruise ship Costa Concordia hit rocks after a planned close pass along the island. In the final minutes, the investigation found, at least one helm order was misunderstood by the helmsman, whose working language differed from the master's, and the correction came seconds too late. Closed-loop communication with standard phrases is the defence against exactly this.

Challenge and Response

Juniors often see danger first: the lookout sees the light, the OOW sees the ECDIS alarm. The danger is that they do not speak up, or speak so softly that the senior person does not hear it as a warning. Graded assertiveness gives a way to escalate until heard.

Six steps of graded assertiveness, from hint to emergency, with example phrases

The steps, from the gentlest:

Hint: "That ship is getting quite close." Easy to say, and easy to miss.
Preference: "I think we should alter now."
Query: "Captain, what is our CPA on that ship?"
Offer: "Shall I come round to starboard?"
Statement: "CPA is 0.2 miles. We need to alter now."
Emergency: in imminent danger, act. "Hard a-starboard!" or stop the engine, and explain afterwards.

You do not have to start at step 1. Start at the step the danger warrants, and if you do not get a clear answer, go up one. A useful shorter version taught in many courses is PACE: Probe, Alert, Challenge, Emergency.

A good challenge

A good challenge has three parts: get the person's attention, state the concern with facts, and propose a solution. "Captain. The echo sounder shows 12 metres under the keel and falling fast; the chart shows 30. I recommend we stop and check our position."

Receiving a challenge

The person in command sets the culture. A master who reacts to a challenge with anger teaches the team silence. When challenged:

Listen and thank the person, even if you think they are wrong.
Check the facts they gave you.
Explain your decision if you reject the concern, so they understand.

The ICS Bridge Procedures Guide and the HELM syllabus both describe a bridge climate where every member is encouraged to question. That climate is set by the master, but every officer maintains it.

Error Chains

Investigators rarely find one single cause of an accident. They usually find a chain of small errors and weaknesses, each of which on its own would have been harmless. The accident happens only when they all line up. Breaking any link stops it.

A five-link error chain leading to a grounding, and the bridge team action that breaks each link

Recognising a chain forming

Look for these warning signs. Each one is a link:

Ambiguity: two sources of information disagree (GPS and radar fix, ECDIS and paper chart, your plot and the pilot's intention).
Distraction or fixation: the OOW is absorbed by paperwork, a phone call or a single target and has stopped scanning.
Confusion or an uneasy feeling: "Something does not look right."
Nobody looking out of the window, or nobody monitoring the navigation.
Use of an undocumented procedure, or departure from the plan without discussion.
Violation of limits: speed, UKC, CPA, minimum distance off.
Failure to meet targets: a mark not seen when expected, a wheel-over point passed, a position report missed.
Unresolved discrepancies: an alarm acknowledged but never investigated.

When you notice one, say it aloud. That turns a private worry into a team problem.

Case study: a grounding planned in advance

In September 2013 the chemical tanker Ovit ran aground on the Varne Bank in the Dover Strait. The MAIB found that the passage plan, prepared by a junior officer, had been drawn across the bank and had not been properly checked by the master. The ECDIS was the primary means of navigation, but its audible alarm had been disabled and its safety settings were not appropriate, so the system gave no warning the OOW noticed. The OOW was not monitoring the ship's progress closely, and the ship ran onto the bank and remained there for some hours.

Every link was breakable: a checked plan, correct safety contour and depth settings, an audible alarm, or an OOW who checked the position against the plan and the charted depths.

Case study: trusting one sensor

In June 1995 the cruise ship Royal Majesty grounded on the Rose and Crown Shoal off Nantucket. The GPS antenna cable had come loose soon after departure, and the GPS had defaulted to dead reckoning mode. For about 34 hours the integrated navigation system showed the ship on track while wind and current set it some 17 miles off. Nobody cross-checked the GPS position with the other position-fixing system on board, and when lookouts reported lights that did not match the expected buoys, the reports were not followed up. The lesson for every OOW: fix the position by more than one method, and treat any mismatch as a link in a chain until it is explained.

Working with a Pilot

A pilot brings local knowledge: the channel, the tides, the berth, the tugs and the local rules. But the pilot joins a bridge they have never seen, on a ship they do not know, often at night, and has perhaps 15 minutes before the most demanding part of the passage. BRM makes the pilot part of the team quickly.

The master-pilot exchange

As soon as possible after the pilot boards, the master and pilot exchange information. IMO Resolution A.960 recommends this exchange, and the ICS Bridge Procedures Guide has a checklist for it.

The ship gives the pilot:

The pilot card: draught fore and aft, air draught, length, beam, displacement, propeller type and direction of turn, anchors ready.
The wheelhouse poster: the ship's manoeuvring characteristics, turning circles, stopping distances and the effect of squat.
Engine details: rpm and speed for each telegraph order, time from full ahead to full astern, bow and stern thrusters.
Any defects or unusual handling characteristics.

The pilot gives the ship:

The pilot's intended plan: track, speeds, wheel-over points, where tugs will be made fast, abort points and contingency plans.
Expected tidal stream, current and depths; expected traffic.
The berth, side to, and the mooring plan.
VTS reporting points and local regulations.
The language and the orders they will use.

The master and OOW then compare the pilot's plan with the ship's own berth-to-berth passage plan. Every passage plan should include the pilotage waters; the pilot's arrival does not end the ship's planning.

Monitoring the pilot

During pilotage, the OOW:

continues to fix the position and monitor progress against the plan, especially at wheel-over points and in the critical areas;
watches every helm and engine order the pilot gives and checks that it is carried out correctly (the pilot may give orders in a language or style the helmsman is not used to);
keeps up the lookout, logs times and events, and handles routine VHF if agreed.

If you are in any doubt about the pilot's actions or intentions, ask the pilot. If doubt remains, inform the master immediately and take whatever action is necessary until the master arrives. The pilot's presence does not relieve the master or OOW of their responsibility for the safety of the ship.

Pilot ladders

Pilot transfer arrangements are covered by SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 23. The OOW is often responsible for making sure the ladder is rigged correctly, lit at night, and attended by a responsible officer with a lifebuoy and heaving line ready. Pilots die every year from ladder failures; checking it is part of BRM too.

Checklists: the ICS Bridge Procedures Guide

The ICS Bridge Procedures Guide (6th edition, 2022) is the industry's main reference for bridge practice. MGN 315 recommends it. It includes model checklists that companies adapt for their SMS, covering, among others:

familiarisation with bridge equipment;
preparation for sea and preparation for arrival in port;
pilotage, and the master-pilot information exchange;
passage plan appraisal;
navigation in coastal waters and in ocean waters;
anchoring and anchor watch;
navigation in restricted visibility, in heavy weather or tropical storm areas, and in ice;
changing over the steering;
handing over the watch; and
calling the master.

Using checklists well

A checklist is a memory aid, not a substitute for thinking:

Read-do checklists are followed step by step (for example, testing steering gear before departure).
Do-confirm checklists are completed from memory, then checked against the list (for example, the handover).
Do them at the right time: the arrival checklist an hour before the pilot station, not while the pilot is climbing the ladder.
Do them together: one reads, one checks. A checklist ticked by one person at a desk while nobody looks at the equipment is worthless.
If an item cannot be completed (a radar is unserviceable), do not just tick it. Tell the master, and decide what changes as a result.

Bridge Organisation in Critical Phases

In open sea with good visibility, the bridge team may be the OOW and a lookout. In a critical phase, the master decides to increase it. A typical arrangement for pilotage in restricted visibility might be:

Role	Person	Main tasks
Command, con	Master (or pilot advising)	Decisions, orders, overall situation
Navigation	OOW	Position fixing, monitoring the plan, closed-loop checks of orders
Collision avoidance	Second officer (if available)	Radar and ARPA, reporting targets
Helmsman	AB	Hand steering, reading back orders
Lookout	AB	Visual and sound lookout, reporting
Communications	OOW or second officer	VHF to VTS, tugs, pilot station

Each person knows their task, reports what they see, and hears the plan. The master can then think ahead instead of doing everything themselves.

Worked Example: Arrival with a Pilot

You are OOW on a 20,000 GT container ship arriving at a UK port at night. The pilot boards at 0130.

Before the pilot station (0030). You run the arrival checklist with the master: steering tested, both radars on, engine on bridge control, anchors cleared away, the pilot ladder rigged and lit, the pilot card filled in, VTS called at the reporting point. The master briefs the team on the plan.
Pilot boards (0130). You meet the pilot at the ladder with a radio, then escort them to the bridge. The master hands over the pilot card and wheelhouse poster. The pilot explains: "We'll go up the main channel at 10 knots, two tugs at the outer harbour, starboard side to berth 7." The master checks this against the ship's plan; the ship's plan had port side to. The difference is cleared up now, not at the berth.
In the channel (0150). The pilot orders "Starboard ten." The helmsman reads back, "Port ten," a slip. You hear it: "No, starboard ten!" The helmsman corrects. The pilot thanks you. That is closed-loop communication and monitoring working.
Wheel-over (0210). The ECDIS shows the ship 0.15 nm to the right of the track and the next buoy fine on the port bow, where you expected it to starboard. You say: "Pilot, we're 0.15 to the right of track, and number 12 buoy is fine on the port bow." The pilot looks, agrees, and orders a small correction. A link broken early.

Common Mistakes

Silent bridges. If nobody speaks, nobody shares the picture. Think aloud.
Hints instead of warnings. "Interesting traffic tonight, Captain" is not a warning. State the fact and the concern.
Read-backs nobody listens to. The loop is only closed if the sender checks the read-back.
Treating the pilot's plan as the ship's plan. Compare them; the ship's plan must cover pilotage waters.
Switching off alarms to stop the noise. An alarm silenced is a link in a chain.
Checklists done alone or at the wrong time. Do them before the phase starts, with someone checking.
Trusting one sensor. Cross-check GNSS with radar, visual bearings and soundings.

Summary

BRM is the effective use of all bridge resources, people, equipment and information, for a safe passage. The master stays in command; BRM makes sure the person in charge has all the information the team holds.
Build situational awareness (perceive, comprehend, project) and a shared mental model through the passage plan, briefings and thinking aloud.
Use closed-loop communication with standard phrases for every order that matters: order, read-back, confirm, report.
Challenge with graded assertiveness, escalating until heard; receive challenges with thanks and a check of the facts.
Accidents are error chains. Recognise the links (ambiguity, distraction, unmet targets, silenced alarms) and break one.
With a pilot: exchange information early, compare plans, monitor every order and the ship's position, ask if in doubt and call the master if doubt remains.
Use ICS Bridge Procedures Guide checklists at the right time and as a team.

Check Your Understanding

What three kinds of resource does a bridge team manage?

Answer: People (master, OOW, lookout, helmsman, pilot, engineers, VTS), equipment (radars, ECDIS, compasses, echo sounder, steering, engines, VHF) and information (passage plan, charts, publications, orders, weather, tides, pilot information).

Describe the four steps of closed-loop communication for a helm order.

Answer: Order ("Starboard ten"), read-back by the helmsman ("Starboard ten"), confirmation by the sender ("Correct", or an immediate correction), and report when done ("Wheel's starboard ten"), followed by the OOW checking the rudder indicator.

You are the OOW. The master has the con and is approaching a buoy you think is too close. Your hint has been ignored. What should you say next?

Answer: Escalate: a query or offer ("Captain, what CPA do you want on the buoy? Shall I come to starboard?"), then a clear statement with facts and a proposal ("We will pass 0.1 miles off the buoy, which marks a 5 metre shoal. I recommend we alter to starboard now."). In immediate danger, act and explain afterwards.

What is an error chain, and how is it broken?

Answer: A series of individually minor errors or weaknesses that together lead to an accident. Breaking any single link, for example by checking the plan, setting the ECDIS alarms correctly or cross-checking the position, prevents the accident.

Name four warning signs that an error chain may be forming.

Answer: Any four of: ambiguity between information sources; distraction or fixation; confusion or an uneasy feeling; nobody monitoring or looking out; departure from the plan or an undocumented procedure; violation of limits; failure to meet expected targets; unresolved discrepancies or alarms.

What should the ship give the pilot in the master-pilot exchange?

Answer: The pilot card (draught, air draught, dimensions, propeller, anchors), the wheelhouse poster with manoeuvring data, engine and thruster details, and any defects or unusual handling characteristics.

During pilotage you are in doubt about the pilot's intended turn. What do you do?

Answer: Ask the pilot for clarification. If doubt remains, inform the master immediately and take whatever action is necessary until the master arrives.

What lesson does the Royal Majesty grounding teach about navigation equipment?

Answer: Never trust a single sensor. The GPS had silently gone into dead reckoning mode for about 34 hours; cross-checking with another fixing method or acting on lookouts' reports of unexpected lights would have revealed the error.

What is the difference between a read-do and a do-confirm checklist?

Answer: A read-do checklist is followed step by step as each item is done. A do-confirm checklist is carried out from memory and then checked against the list to confirm nothing was missed.